This is Adams’s roster of the Greek schools; the archive keeps it as context for how the period sorted philosophy, and takes the Aristotelians as its sample entry.
In Hannah Adams
In Adams’s own words, from the 1817 Dictionary. Each passage is quoted verbatim under its own entry.
ARISTOTELIANS, the disciples of Aristotle, a famous Grecian philosopher, who flourished about 485 years before Christ. Hetaughtthatthe universe existed from eternity, but admitted the existence of a Deity, whom lie styled the first Mover; and whose nature he represented as somewhat similar to a principle of power, giving motion to a machine. In producing motion, he taught, that the Deity acts not voluntarily.but necessarily.;—not for the sake of other beings, but for his own pleasure; and that happy in the contemplation of himself, he is entirely regardless of human affairs. Nothing occurs in his writings, which decisively determines whether he supposed the soul of man mortal or immortal.
Respecting ethics, he taught, that happiness consists in the virtuous exercise of the mind'; and that virtue consists in preserving that mean in all things, which reason and prudence prescribe. Itis the middle path between two extremes, one of which is vicious through excess, the other through defect.
STOICS, a sect of heathen philosophers, of which Zeno, who flourished about three hundred and fifty years before Christ, was the founder. They received their denomination from a portico at Athens, in which Zeno delivered his lectures. Their distinguishing tenets were—That God is underived, incorruptible, and eternal; possessed of infinite Wisdom and goodness; the efficient cause of all the qualities and forms of things; and the constant preserver and governour of the world. That matter is also underived and eternal, and by the powerful energy of the Deity impressed with motion and form. That though God and matter subsisted from eternity, the present regular frame of nature had a beginning, and will have an end. That the element of fire will, at last, by an universal conflagration, reduce the world to its pristine state. That at this period all material forms will be lost in one chaotic mass; and all animated nature be reunited to the Deity. That from this chaotic state, however, the world will again emerge by the energy of the efficient principle; and gods, and men, and all forms of regulated nature, be renewed and dissolved, in endless succession. That after the revolution of the great year all things will be restored, and the race of men will return to life. Some imagined that each individual would return to its former body, while others supposed that similar souls would be placed in similar bodies. Those among the Stoics, who maintained the existence of the soul after death, supposed it to be removed into the celestial regions of the gods, where it remains until, at the general conflagration, all souls, both human and divine, shall be absorbed in the Deity. But many imagined that, before they were admitted among the divinities, they must purge away their inherent vices and imperfections, by a temporary residence in some aerial regions between the earth and the planets. According to the general doctrine of the Stoics all things are subject to a blind irresistible fatality, even the gods themselves; though some explained this fate as meaning only the irresistible decrees of divine providence.* It was the object of this philosophy to divest men of their passions and affections; they taught, therefore, that a wise man might be happy in the midst of torture, and that all external things were to him indifferent. Their virtues all arose from, and centred in themselves, and_ self-approbation was their great reward.
EPICUREANS. They derive their name from Epicurus, the philosopher, who was born in the 109th olympiad, or about 240 years before Christ. He accounted for the formation of the world by supposing that a finite number of that infinite * Mosheim, B + Ross’ View of Religions, p. 234. multitude of atoms, which fills the immense space of the universe, falling fortuitously into the region of our world, were in consequence of their innate motion collected into one rude and indigested mass. All the varions parts of nature were formed by those atoms, wltich were best fitted to produce then. he fiery particles formed themselves into air, and from those whick subsided, the earth was produced. The mind, or intellect, was formed of particles most subtle in their nature, and capable of the most rapid motion. The world is preserved by the same mechanical causes by which it was framed, and from the same causes it will at last be dissolved.
Epicurus admitted that there were in the universe divine natures: but asserted that these happy beings did not incumber themselves with the government of the world; yet that on account of their excellent nature they are proper objects of reverence.
The science of physics was, in the judgment of Epicurus, subordinate to that of ethics; and his whole doctrine concerning nature was professedly adapted to rescne men from the dominion of troublesome passions, and lay the foundation of a tranquil and happy life. He taught that man is to do every thing for his own sake; that he + is to make his own happiness his chief end, and do all in his power to secure and preserve it. He considered pleasure as the ultimate good of mankind: but asserts, that he does not mean the pleasures of the luxurious y but principally the freedom of the body from pain, and of the mind from anguish and perturbation. His followers however applied the principle to sensual indulgence, and this made his philosophy so popular that people of high rank and luxurious character generally embraced it. The virtue he prescribes is resolved ultimately into our private advantage, without regard to the excellence of its own nature, or to its being commanded by the Supreme Being.
SCEPTICS. This sect derive their name from the Greek verb a-Ken-Tofuti, to consider, from their leading character, which is, to hesitate and call in question the truth of every opinion, and maintain that every thing is uncertain.
The original design of the sceptic philosophy was to compare external phenomena with mental conceptions, in order to discover their inconsistency, and the consequent uncertainty of all reasoning from appearances:—to cure that restlessness which attends the unsuccessful search after truth, and by means of an universal suspension of judgment to establish mental tranquillity. Its fundamental principle is, that to every argument, an arguwent of equal weight may be applied.
The sceptic docs not deny that he can see, hear, or feel; but he maintains that the. inferences which philosophers have drawn from the reports of the senses are doubtful; and that any general conclusion, deduced from appearances, may be overturned by reasonings equally plausible with those by which it is supported.
Cywho, a Greek philosopher of Peloponnesus, (about 300 years before Christ,) was the founder of this sect, but it obtained no great popularity till the time of the Roman Emperors. His object was rather to destroy other systems, than to establish a new one. He asserted nothing positively; even on the point of morals he doubted, because he could not certainly discriminate between good and evil, or indifferent. Many of his early followers chose to shelter themselves under the name of Academics, who (especially the disciples of Carneades) w ere much inclined to scepticism; only they did admit certain degrees of probability, which the others rejected. The Academics allowed that nothing (except mathematical science) could he known with certainty; but the Pyrrhonists were not certain even of this: and so fond were they of doubting, that they even donbted their only position, that * Gale’s Court of the Gentiles, every thing was doubtful, lu the common business of life, however, it is said, they were too wise to act upon this principle.
The celebrated Mons.Bayle, author of the Historical and Critical Dictionary, who was born in 1647, has been considered as one of the most powerful advocates for scepticism among the moderns. He was educated a protestant, and early in life gave proofs of superiour genius. But while he attended the Jesuits’ college at Toulouse, the reading of controversial hooks, and the conversation of a popish priest, led him to embrace the Roman catholic religion, which in eighteen months alter he renounced, and then became a sceptic, without any fixed system of opinions. Mr. Hume, the English historian, makes a distinguished figure also among the modern sceptics. The chief aim of his philosophical writings is to introduce doubt in every branch of physics, metaphysics,history, ethics, and theology. “ There is,” says this celebrated author, “ a species of scepticism, antecedent to study and philosophy, which is much inculcated by Des Cartes and others, as a sovereign preservative against error and precipitate judgment. It recommends an universal doubt, not only of our former principles and opinions, but also of our very faculties; of Enfield’s Hist, of Philosophy, vol. i. whose veracity we must assure ourselves by a chain of reasoning, deduced from some original principles, which cannot be fallacious or deceitful.”*
PYRRHONISTS, the disciples of Pyrrho, the sceptical philosopher. See Sceptics.
CYNICS, a sect of snarling philosophers who were proud of showing their contempt, not only for riches and state, but for the arts and sciences, and all the comforts of civilized life. This sect was founded by Antisthenes of Athens, but carried to its highest glory by Diogenes, who wandered like a beggar in avagged cloak, and carried with him a tub which served hin: for his lodging.
J religion, and christian charity to severity of church discipline. As he grew rich by industry, he devoted all his property to doing good, and ranks high among the philanthropists of his age.§
Hannah Adams, A Dictionary of All Religions and Religious Denominations, 4th ed. (Boston: Cummings and Hilliard, 1817), entries “Aristotelians” (pp. 29–30), “Stoics” (pp. 279–281), “Epicureans” (pp. 76–77), “Sceptics” (pp. 259–261), “Pyrrhonists” (p. 239), “Cynics” (p. 62).